Opioids
The opioids domain of the Atlas of Healthcare Variation gives an overview on the dispensing of opioids by demographics and health district to identify areas of wide variation.
This data is not intended to form definitive statements of quality, rather to raise questions about potential areas for quality improvement.
Data for 2019–2025; released September 2026
Access the Opioids Atlas of Healthcare Variation
Overview of opioid use
Opioids are a type of medicine used to treat pain. They are used a lot in hospital to help ease patients’ pain, but they can also cause harm.
The Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI) classes opioids, along with anticoagulants, insulin and sedatives, as groups of medicines that can cause harm to patients. This is even when used as intended.
Pain management
Opioid analgesia is the primary intervention for managing pain in hospital patients. Opioids are also considered effective treatment for severe pain in palliative care (NICE, 2013). The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends opioids not be used for neuropathic pain without specialist assessment. There is limited evidence that opioids are effective for treating chronic non-cancer pain in the long term (Avery et al 2022).
Dispensing has increased over time
Our analyses showed that strong opioid dispensing has increased over time, particularly for older adults. We also found that older adults were more likely to be dispensed strong opioids for 6 or more weeks. Opioids should only be used over the long term (more than 6 weeks) with extreme caution, and the potential for serious adverse effects and complications should be considered (NICE 2013 & bpacnz 2023).
Potential harm with opioid use
Harm associated with opioid therapy includes:
- opioid tolerance
- opioid-induced hyperalgesia (Chen et al 2013)
- iatrogenic addiction and dependency
- drug diversion
- aberrant drug-related behaviours (NICE 2013 & Sullivan et al 2010)
- overdose, respiratory depression and increased risk of death, particularly when opioids are used at higher doses or in combination with other sedating medicines (World Health Organization 2025).
In addition, a strong relationship between severe dependence on opioids and other substance use and mental health disorders has been observed (van Draanen et al 2022).
Health practitioners considering opioid therapy for chronic non-malignant pain are advised to conduct a thorough benefit-to-harm evaluation to determine whether opioids are the most appropriate option. This evaluation should include a detailed history, physical examination and diagnostic assessment before initiating treatment, with ongoing review throughout the course of therapy (NICE 2013 & Manchikanti et al 2023).
Opioid prescribing in hospitals
There is growing evidence that hospital encounters are a key trigger for opioid prescribing, especially in younger populations (Langford et al 2025). Our analysis also showed that nearly one in six young people who were dispensed a strong opioid went to hospital in the 8 days before dispensing.
Prolonged exposure to opioids
There is a concern whether even short-term opioid use can lead to prolonged exposure. This is especially so where there is no clear plan to reassess the need for opioids or to taper off opioid use if necessary (Langford et al 2025). It underscores the need for targeted interventions at hospital discharge to ensure opioids are used safely, appropriately and temporarily.
What the data shows
The data is from 2019 to 2025, and can be viewed by age, gender and ethnic grouping. Variation by health district and primary health organisation are also presented. We use indicators to show data. These indicators were developed with the help of an expert advisory group.
Primary health organisation (PHO) enrolment data were used as the denominator, replacing Stats NZ estimated population projections. This resulted in about 6,900 people being excluded from the atlas. This is around 6 percent of the total count of 113,600 people being dispensed a strong opioid in a year. There were no significant differences in the percent excluded due to not being enrolled by age, ethnicity or gender.
Note: The 2025 data is based on the latest extract provided by Health New Zealand in August 2026. As additional data become available, figures may vary slightly when this analysis is replicated in the future.
Selected findings from the atlas are summarised below. For all indicators and detailed commentary, see the atlas dashboards.
Key messages
- The overall dispensing rate of both strong and weak opioids has increased
- Overall, rates of opioid dispensing are higher in people of European/Other ethnicity, women and people aged 80 years and over.
- Almost half of people dispensed a strong opioid had a ‘trigger event’ in a public hospital in the previous week, suggesting these prescriptions are generated in hospital.
- Oxycodone dispensing has increased significantly since 2019, particularly for those aged 80 years and over. There was wide variation between districts, for example, in people aged 80 years or over, rates varied more than fivefold.
- Fentanyl dispensing increased significantly with age, with a tenfold variation between districts.
A ‘strong’ opioid is classed as step 3 of the World Health Organisation’s (WHO’s) analgesic ladder. Such opioids include: fentanyl, methadone, morphine, oxycodone and pethidine. These opioids are subsidised in New Zealand.
- In 2025, excluding people receiving methadone for opioid substitution treatment, 23.1 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population were dispensed a strong opioid. This is a significant increase from 2019, when the rate was 15.5 per 1,000 people.
- Dispensing rates for strong opioids:
- varied significantly between districts; for example, rates ranged from 31.4–70.9 per 1,000 among those aged 65–79 years
- increased significantly by age; for example, about 116.2 per 1,000 people aged 80 years and over were dispensed a strong opioid, compared with 49.8 per 1,000 for those aged 65–74 years
- varied by ethnic grouping; for example, Māori aged 65–79 years (63.1 per 1,000) had significantly higher rates than people belonging to other ethnic groupings (Pacific peoples 40.5; Asian 22.2 and European/Other 52.2 per 1,000 people)
- varied by gender; among people aged 80 years or over, women (127.0 per 1,000) were dispensed significantly more strong opioids than men (102.3 per 1,000).
- Of the people receiving a strong opioid, 10.2 percent took the opioid for 6 or more weeks.
- In 2025, people aged 80 years and over were significantly more likely to be dispensed a strong opioid for 6 or more weeks than younger age groups.
A ‘weak’ opioid is classed as step 2 of WHO’s analgesic ladder. Such opioids include: tramadol, codeine and dihydrocodeine. These opioids are subsidised in New Zealand. Paracetamol with codeine is excluded because it contains a low dose of codeine.
- In 2025, about 107.7 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population in New Zealand were dispensed a weak opioid, a significant increase from 2019 (102.9 per 1,000).
- Weak opioid use remains most common among older people aged 80 years and over (170.0 per 1,000 in 2025), despite a decline in rates for this age group since 2019 (181.5 per 1,000). Conversely, rates have increased among the 25–64 age group, rising from 127.9 per 1,000 in 2019 to 133.2.0 per 1,000 in 2025.
- Ethnic differences exist; for example, among those aged 25–64 years, Māori (157.5 per 1,000) were significantly more likely to be prescribed weak opioids than other ethnic groups (Pacific peoples: 142.5; Asian: 91.6; European/Other:142.2 per 1,000).
- Tramadol was dispensed to fewer people overall than codeine or dihydrocodeine – 51.1 compared with 67.5 per 1,000. Tramadol dispensing is highest among those aged 25–64 years and 65–79 years (around 67 per 1,000), while dispensing of codeine or dihydrocodeine is highest among individuals aged 80 years and over (137.2 per 1,000).
- Tramadol dispensing in people aged 80 years and over has decreased from 49.9 per 1,000 in 2019 to 42.8 per 1,000 in 2025.
- As with strong opioids, women were dispensed significantly more weak opioids than men were. For example, among those aged 80 years and over, women (180.9 per 1,000) were dispensed significantly more weak opioids than men were (155.9 per 1,000).
- In 2025, about 15.4 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population received morphine.
- Dispensing rates varied by district, for example, among those aged 80 years and over, district variation was about threefold, ranging from 37.4 to 110.8 per 1,000 people.
- Of those dispensed a strong opioid in 2025, two-thirds (66.7 percent) received morphine.
- The number of people dispensed morphine has increased by about 26,000 people since 2019, from 10.5 to 15.4 per 1,000 people in 2025.
- One in nine people dispensed morphine continued taking it for 6 weeks or more. Among those aged 80 years or over who were dispensed morphine for 6 weeks or longer, more than 9 out of 10 belong to European/Other ethnicity.
- In 2025, about 8.4 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population received oxycodone, a significant increase from 2019 (5.1 per 1,000).
- Rates varied by district; for example, among those aged 80 years or over, rates varied more than fivefold, ranging from 15.2–79.7 per 1,000 people.
- About 1 in 10 people dispensed oxycodone took it for 6 or more weeks.
- In 2025, about 1.3 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population received fentanyl.
- Fentanyl dispensing significantly increased with age from 3.1 per 1,000 aged 65–79 years to 14.7 per 1,000 people aged 80 years and over.
- Rates varied by district; for example, among those aged 80 years or over, rates varied about tenfold, ranging from 3.8–38.6 per 1,000 people.
- Of those given fentanyl, more than 20 percent took it for 6 or more weeks.
- Of every 10 people dispensed a strong opioid, nearly 5 attended a public hospital as an inpatient or outpatient in the previous week.
- Younger people were more likely to have a public hospital event before being dispensed a strong opioid compared with older people; 6 out of every 10 of those aged 0–24 years compared with 4 out of 10 of those aged 80 years and over.
- In 2025, among those aged 80 years or over, European/Other had the highest rates of strong opioid dispensing but the lowest rates of public hospital events in the 8 days before dispensing, compared with other ethnic groups.
Aged residential care (ARC) data is available only to 2023, and the 2022 data is incomplete. Therefore, 2022 has been excluded from the analysis below.
In previous years, we noticed a high rate of morphine dispensing among people aged 65 years and over living in ARC. The rate of morphine dispensing among people aged 65 years and over not living in ARC is not increasing at the same rate.
We explored possible reasons for the increase in ARC. One of the most likely reasons could be the use of strong opioids for palliative care. Morphine is the recommended first-line opioid in palliative care (bpacnz 2023b). The increase may be a result of more people receiving palliative care within ARC settings. However, the available data do not allow us to determine the proportion of opioid use that is specifically for end-of-life care. Morphine remained the most commonly dispensed strong opioid in ARC, which is consistent with recommended palliative care practice. However, dispensing of oxycodone has increased in recent years, indicating that factors other than palliative care may also be contributing to the observed trend.
We also analysed dispensing strong opioids by type in the 6 months before a person’s death. Figure 2 below shows that strong opioid dispensing rates peak in the month of death, with 41.6 percent of people receiving a strong opioid in their last month of life in 2023.This was higher among people living in ARC (53.5 percent) than among those not living in ARC (43.6 percent).
Key findings from the opioids atlas were discussed with clinicians to better understand potential drivers behind the increase in opioid dispensing. While strong opioids dispensing among older adults is high, this does not necessarily reflect inappropriate prescribing. Patterns appear to be a combination of:
- clinical necessity (for example, comorbidities limiting alternatives)
- compassionate care priorities (comfort over long-term risk)
- concerns about under-treating pain.
Our data show that around 10 percent of strong opioids are dispensed for 6 or more weeks. The rate has not substantially changed since 2019. However, high rates in people aged 80 years and over and wide district variation (up to fivefold variation in oxycodone dispensing) raise questions that warrant further exploration.
Potential questions for further analysis that may support quality improvement include:
Understanding variation between districts
- Why do some districts have consistently lower or higher opioid dispensing rates than the national mean? What impact might access to non-pharmacologic pain management have on these rates? What is the effect of a district’s access to specialist pain services on the use of opioids?
- How do districts with similar populations compare?
Understanding the relationship between opioid use and access to health services
- How much are surgical wait times, ineligibility for surgery, weight gain and comorbidity contributing factors?
- How do opioid dispensing rates compare for regions with longer surgical wait times and those with better access to surgery?
- Is there a correlation between orthopaedic wait times and opioid dispensing rates?
- What is the effect of access to palliative care services?
Understanding opioid use in ARC
- What are districts’ trends for opioid prescribing in ARC?
- What percentage of ARC residents on strong opioids had the strong opioids initiated during a hospital admission? How often are opioid dosages successfully tapered after discharge? What measures are in place in hospitals to limit opioid prescribing at discharge?
- What proportion of ARC residents remain on strong opioids for more than 6 weeks?
- What proportion of opioid prescriptions in ARC are for palliative or end-of-life care, chronic non-cancer pain or changes in behaviour attributed to pain?
- How much is the increase in strong opioid, particularly oxycodone, dispensing related to palliative and end-of-life care?
Understanding patient expectations and influences on prescribing
- How often do complaints about inadequate pain relief influence prescribing decisions? Does perceived ineffectiveness of paracetamol influence patient expectations and clinician prescribing? Does bulk availability and direct-to-consumer advertising of over-the-counter painkillers create a perception these products are ineffective, leading patients to request stronger medications?
Understanding workforce, prescribing and clinical practice factors
- What tools and skills do primary health care providers have to manage chronic non-cancer pain?
- How can the impact of increased use of telehealth appointments, changes in prescriber workforce (for example, more international doctors, nurse practitioners, short-term locums) and 12-month prescribing be managed to ensure medication reviews are maintained?
- Are concerns about the ‘triple whammy’ (NSAIDs + ACE inhibitors + diuretics) and renal risk in older people limiting non-opioid pain relief options? What guidance does regional health pathways provide for chronic pain management? Do repeat prescribing policies for analgesics and pain management need updating?
- Might the removal of triplicate prescribing in 2021 have reduced barriers to opioid prescribing?
Understanding variation between population groups
- Why are there marked ethnic differences in the use of opioids? Is it the result of higher use in older people or might it reflect other differences, such as different cultural expressions of pain and different ways of coping with pain?
Understanding outcomes, safety and co-prescribing
- What other combinations of medicines are people receiving strong opioids for 6 or more weeks also receiving?
- How does the falls rate of older people who are using opioids compare with the rate of those who are not using opioids? What is the extent of polypharmacy in older people who are using opioids?
The rate of strong opioid dispensing has increased since 2019
A ‘strong’ opioid is classed as step 3 of the World Health Organisation’s (WHO’s) analgesic ladder. Such opioids include: fentanyl, methadone, morphine, oxycodone and pethidine. These opioids are subsidised in New Zealand.
- In 2025, excluding people receiving methadone for opioid substitution treatment, 23.1 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population were dispensed a strong opioid. This is a significant increase from 2019, when the rate was 15.5 per 1,000 people.
- Dispensing rates for strong opioids:
- varied significantly between districts; for example, rates ranged from 31.4–70.9 per 1,000 among those aged 65–79 years
- increased significantly by age; for example, about 116.2 per 1,000 people aged 80 years and over were dispensed a strong opioid, compared with 49.8 per 1,000 for those aged 65–74 years
- varied by ethnic grouping; for example, Māori aged 65–79 years (63.1 per 1,000) had significantly higher rates than people belonging to other ethnic groupings (Pacific peoples 40.5; Asian 22.2 and European/Other 52.2 per 1,000 people)
- varied by gender; among people aged 80 years or over, women (127.0 per 1,000) were dispensed significantly more strong opioids than men (102.3 per 1,000).
- Of the people receiving a strong opioid, 10.2 percent took the opioid for 6 or more weeks.
- In 2025, people aged 80 years and over were significantly more likely to be dispensed a strong opioid for 6 or more weeks than younger age groups.
Dispensing of weak opioids varied by age
A ‘weak’ opioid is classed as step 2 of WHO’s analgesic ladder. Such opioids include: tramadol, codeine and dihydrocodeine. These opioids are subsidised in New Zealand. Paracetamol with codeine is excluded because it contains a low dose of codeine.
- In 2025, about 107.7 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population in New Zealand were dispensed a weak opioid, a significant increase from 2019 (102.9 per 1,000).
- Weak opioid use remains most common among older people aged 80 years and over (170.0 per 1,000 in 2025), despite a decline in rates for this age group since 2019 (181.5 per 1,000). Conversely, rates have increased among the 25–64 age group, rising from 127.9 per 1,000 in 2019 to 133.2.0 per 1,000 in 2025.
- Ethnic differences exist; for example, among those aged 25–64 years, Māori (157.5 per 1,000) were significantly more likely to be prescribed weak opioids than other ethnic groups (Pacific peoples: 142.5; Asian: 91.6; European/Other:142.2 per 1,000).
- Tramadol was dispensed to fewer people overall than codeine or dihydrocodeine – 51.1 compared with 67.5 per 1,000. Tramadol dispensing is highest among those aged 25–64 years and 65–79 years (around 67 per 1,000), while dispensing of codeine or dihydrocodeine is highest among individuals aged 80 years and over (137.2 per 1,000).
- Tramadol dispensing in people aged 80 years and over has decreased from 49.9 per 1,000 in 2019 to 42.8 per 1,000 in 2025.
- As with strong opioids, women were dispensed significantly more weak opioids than men were. For example, among those aged 80 years and over, women (180.9 per 1,000) were dispensed significantly more weak opioids than men were (155.9 per 1,000).
Morphine dispensing has increased since 2019
- In 2025, about 15.4 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population received morphine.
- Dispensing rates varied by district, for example, among those aged 80 years and over, district variation was about threefold, ranging from 37.4 to 110.8 per 1,000 people.
- Of those dispensed a strong opioid in 2025, two-thirds (66.7 percent) received morphine.
- The number of people dispensed morphine has increased by about 26,000 people since 2019, from 10.5 to 15.4 per 1,000 people in 2025.
- One in nine people dispensed morphine continued taking it for 6 weeks or more. Among those aged 80 years or over who were dispensed morphine for 6 weeks or longer, more than 9 out of 10 belong to European/Other ethnicity.
Oxycodone dispensing has increased significantly from 2019
- In 2025, about 8.4 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population received oxycodone, a significant increase from 2019 (5.1 per 1,000).
- Rates varied by district; for example, among those aged 80 years or over, rates varied more than fivefold, ranging from 15.2–79.7 per 1,000 people.
- About 1 in 10 people dispensed oxycodone took it for 6 or more weeks.
Rates of fentanyl dispensing varied widely, particularly in those aged 80 years and over
- In 2025, about 1.3 per 1,000 of the PHO-enrolled population received fentanyl.
- Fentanyl dispensing significantly increased with age from 3.1 per 1,000 aged 65–79 years to 14.7 per 1,000 people aged 80 years and over.
- Rates varied by district; for example, among those aged 80 years or over, rates varied about tenfold, ranging from 3.8–38.6 per 1,000 people.
- Of those given fentanyl, more than 20 percent took it for 6 or more weeks.
Almost half of those dispensed a strong opioid had a public hospital 'trigger event'
- Of every 10 people dispensed a strong opioid, nearly 5 attended a public hospital as an inpatient or outpatient in the previous week.
- Younger people were more likely to have a public hospital event before being dispensed a strong opioid compared with older people; 6 out of every 10 of those aged 0–24 years compared with 4 out of 10 of those aged 80 years and over.
- In 2025, among those aged 80 years or over, European/Other had the highest rates of strong opioid dispensing but the lowest rates of public hospital events in the 8 days before dispensing, compared with other ethnic groups.
Opioid dispensing for people aged 65 years and over, by place of residence (2023)
Aged residential care (ARC) data is available only to 2023, and the 2022 data is incomplete. Therefore, 2022 has been excluded from the analysis below.
In previous years, we noticed a high rate of morphine dispensing among people aged 65 years and over living in ARC. The rate of morphine dispensing among people aged 65 years and over not living in ARC is not increasing at the same rate.
We explored possible reasons for the increase in ARC. One of the most likely reasons could be the use of strong opioids for palliative care. Morphine is the recommended first-line opioid in palliative care (bpacnz 2023b). The increase may be a result of more people receiving palliative care within ARC settings. However, the available data do not allow us to determine the proportion of opioid use that is specifically for end-of-life care. Morphine remained the most commonly dispensed strong opioid in ARC, which is consistent with recommended palliative care practice. However, dispensing of oxycodone has increased in recent years, indicating that factors other than palliative care may also be contributing to the observed trend.
We also analysed dispensing strong opioids by type in the 6 months before a person’s death. Figure 2 below shows that strong opioid dispensing rates peak in the month of death, with 41.6 percent of people receiving a strong opioid in their last month of life in 2023.This was higher among people living in ARC (53.5 percent) than among those not living in ARC (43.6 percent).
Questions raised
Key findings from the opioids atlas were discussed with clinicians to better understand potential drivers behind the increase in opioid dispensing. While strong opioids dispensing among older adults is high, this does not necessarily reflect inappropriate prescribing. Patterns appear to be a combination of:
- clinical necessity (for example, comorbidities limiting alternatives)
- compassionate care priorities (comfort over long-term risk)
- concerns about under-treating pain.
Our data show that around 10 percent of strong opioids are dispensed for 6 or more weeks. The rate has not substantially changed since 2019. However, high rates in people aged 80 years and over and wide district variation (up to fivefold variation in oxycodone dispensing) raise questions that warrant further exploration.
Potential questions for further analysis that may support quality improvement include:
Understanding variation between districts
- Why do some districts have consistently lower or higher opioid dispensing rates than the national mean? What impact might access to non-pharmacologic pain management have on these rates? What is the effect of a district’s access to specialist pain services on the use of opioids?
- How do districts with similar populations compare?
Understanding the relationship between opioid use and access to health services
- How much are surgical wait times, ineligibility for surgery, weight gain and comorbidity contributing factors?
- How do opioid dispensing rates compare for regions with longer surgical wait times and those with better access to surgery?
- Is there a correlation between orthopaedic wait times and opioid dispensing rates?
- What is the effect of access to palliative care services?
Understanding opioid use in ARC
- What are districts’ trends for opioid prescribing in ARC?
- What percentage of ARC residents on strong opioids had the strong opioids initiated during a hospital admission? How often are opioid dosages successfully tapered after discharge? What measures are in place in hospitals to limit opioid prescribing at discharge?
- What proportion of ARC residents remain on strong opioids for more than 6 weeks?
- What proportion of opioid prescriptions in ARC are for palliative or end-of-life care, chronic non-cancer pain or changes in behaviour attributed to pain?
- How much is the increase in strong opioid, particularly oxycodone, dispensing related to palliative and end-of-life care?
Understanding patient expectations and influences on prescribing
- How often do complaints about inadequate pain relief influence prescribing decisions? Does perceived ineffectiveness of paracetamol influence patient expectations and clinician prescribing? Does bulk availability and direct-to-consumer advertising of over-the-counter painkillers create a perception these products are ineffective, leading patients to request stronger medications?
Understanding workforce, prescribing and clinical practice factors
- What tools and skills do primary health care providers have to manage chronic non-cancer pain?
- How can the impact of increased use of telehealth appointments, changes in prescriber workforce (for example, more international doctors, nurse practitioners, short-term locums) and 12-month prescribing be managed to ensure medication reviews are maintained?
- Are concerns about the ‘triple whammy’ (NSAIDs + ACE inhibitors + diuretics) and renal risk in older people limiting non-opioid pain relief options? What guidance does regional health pathways provide for chronic pain management? Do repeat prescribing policies for analgesics and pain management need updating?
- Might the removal of triplicate prescribing in 2021 have reduced barriers to opioid prescribing?
Understanding variation between population groups
- Why are there marked ethnic differences in the use of opioids? Is it the result of higher use in older people or might it reflect other differences, such as different cultural expressions of pain and different ways of coping with pain?
Understanding outcomes, safety and co-prescribing
- What other combinations of medicines are people receiving strong opioids for 6 or more weeks also receiving?
- How does the falls rate of older people who are using opioids compare with the rate of those who are not using opioids? What is the extent of polypharmacy in older people who are using opioids?
Data sources and methodology
Data for this atlas domain were drawn from the pharmaceutical collection, which contains claim and payment information from community pharmacists for subsidised dispensing. This collection does not allow for analysis of patients’ conditions or the effectiveness of dose provided. This means it is not possible to assess the appropriateness or otherwise of prescribing. Note that unsubsidised dispensing is not included in this analysis.
This analysis focuses on the number of people dispensed opioids, not on the number of prescriptions of these medicines. Interpreting what the number of dispensed prescriptions might mean is difficult. It is complicated by differences in prescribing frequency, formulation and dose and whether the medicine should be taken ‘as needed’ or at regular times.
We recommend further local analysis of the people receiving these medicines that account for these factors and the person’s clinical condition.
Atlas of Healthcare Variation: Methodology for opioids (PDF 582KB)
Atlas of Healthcare Variation: Methodology for opioids (DOCX 419KB)
More information
- Clinical Audit - Reviewing patients using opioid medicines long-term for non-cancer pain (bpac.org.nz)
- Revisiting opioid use in New Zealand: How does your prescribing compare? (bpac.org.nz)
- Comprehensive, evidence-based, consensus guidelines for prescription of opioids for chronic non-cancer pain. Updated opioid guidelines (painphysicianjournal.com)
- Efficacy of interventions to reduce long term opioid treatment for chronic non-cancer pain: systematic review and meta-analysis (bmj.com)
- Global perspectives on opioid use: shifting the conversation from deprescribing to quality use of medicines (qualitysafety.bmj.com)
- Lack of correlation between opioid dose adjustment and pain score change in a group of chronic pain patients (jpain.org)
- Mental disorder and opioid overdose: a systematic review (link.springer.com)
- Neuropathic pain in adults: pharmacological management in non-specialist settings (nice.org.uk)
- Opioid overdose (who.int)
- Problems and concerns of patients receiving chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain (ovid.com)
- Revisiting opioid use in New Zealand: How does your prescribing compare? (bpac.org.nz)
References
- Clinical Audit - Reviewing patients using opioid medicines long-term for non-cancer pain (bpac.org.nz)
- Revisiting opioid use in New Zealand: How does your prescribing compare? (bpac.org.nz)
- Comprehensive, evidence-based, consensus guidelines for prescription of opioids for chronic non-cancer pain. Updated opioid guidelines (painphysicianjournal.com)
- Efficacy of interventions to reduce long term opioid treatment for chronic non-cancer pain: systematic review and meta-analysis (bmj.com)
- Global perspectives on opioid use: shifting the conversation from deprescribing to quality use of medicines (qualitysafety.bmj.com)
- Lack of correlation between opioid dose adjustment and pain score change in a group of chronic pain patients (jpain.org)
- Mental disorder and opioid overdose: a systematic review (link.springer.com)
- Neuropathic pain in adults: pharmacological management in non-specialist settings (nice.org.uk)
- Opioid overdose (who.int)
- Problems and concerns of patients receiving chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain (ovid.com)
- Revisiting opioid use in New Zealand: How does your prescribing compare? (bpac.org.nz)
Further reading
